Learn about the racial wealth gap, era-by-era:
Summary - Equal Justice Initiative
After the Civil War, slavery persisted in the form of convict leasing, a system in which Southern states leased prisoners to private railways, mines, and large plantations. While states profited, prisoners earned no pay and faced inhumane, dangerous, and often deadly work conditions. Thousands of Black people were forced into what authors have termed “slavery by another name” until the 1930s.
The Thirteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1865, prohibited slavery and involuntary servitude, but explicitly exempted those convicted of crime. In response, Southern state legislatures quickly passed “Black Codes” – new laws that explicitly applied only to Black people and subjected them to criminal prosecution for “offenses” such as loitering, breaking curfew, vagrancy, having weapons, and not carrying proof of employment. Crafted to ensnare Black people and return them to chains, these laws were effective; for the first time in U.S. history, many state penal systems held more Black prisoners than white – all of whom could be leased for profit.
Examples
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Chattahoochee Brick Company (Atlanta, Georgia): The Chattahoochee Brick Company used convict labor, including African American prisoners, in the production of bricks.
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Parchman Farm (Mississippi State Penitentiary) - Parchman, Mississippi: Parchman Farm, also known as the Mississippi State Penitentiary, was notorious for its use of convict leasing. African American prisoners were subjected to harsh conditions and forced labor. For more information, you can visit the official website of the Mississippi Department of Corrections: www.mdoc.ms.gov.
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Sugar Land (Imperial State Prison Farm) - Sugar Land, Texas: Sugar Land, located in Texas, was the site of the Imperial State Prison Farm where African American convicts were leased out for labor, primarily in the sugar cane fields. The site has since been repurposed, and the Sugar Land Heritage Foundation provides historical information: www.slheritage.org.
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Angola Prison (Louisiana State Penitentiary) - Angola, Louisiana: Angola Prison in Louisiana had a history of convict leasing, with African American prisoners working in agriculture and other industries. The official website of the Louisiana Department of Public Safety and Corrections provides information about the prison: www.doc.louisiana.gov.
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Cummins Unit (Arkansas Department of Corrections) - Grady, Arkansas: The Cummins Unit, part of the Arkansas Department of Corrections, employed convict labor, including African American prisoners, in various industries. The official website of the Arkansas Department of Corrections offers information about the facility: www.doc.arkansas.gov.
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Rikers Island (New York City Department of Correction) - New York City, New York: While not specifically associated with convict leasing, Rikers Island in New York has a history of utilizing inmate labor, including African American prisoners, for various work assignments within the facility.
Articles
What is convict leasing? · Sugar Land Convict Leasing
The Origins of Modern Day Policing
Inside Mississippi’s notorious Parchman prison (Hannah Grabenstein)
Local historians honor forgotten railroad workers | Mountain Xpress
Books
Slavery Revisited: Blacks And The Southern Convict Lease System, 1865 1933 (Milfred C. Fierce)
One Dies, Get Another: Convict Leasing in the American South, 1866-1928 (Matthew J. Mancini)
The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness (Michelle Alexander)
Worse Than Slavery: Parchman Farm and the Ordeal of Jim Crow Justice (David M. Oshinsky)
Parchman Farm: Photographs and Field Recordings: 1947-1959 (Bruce Jackson)
Podcasts
Episode 8: Zebulon Ward and Convict Leasing – The Reckoning
Black History for White People - Convict Leasing
Reframing History: Mass Incarceration - NPR Throughline
Film/Video
Slavery by Another Name: The Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II
Convict Leasing | Slavery By Another Name
Henry Louis Gates, Jr. - Convict Leasing | Black History in Two Minutes
Convict Leasing in America: Unearthing the Truth of the Sugar Land 95
Joseph House Lecture Series: Florida's Convict Lease System and its Legacy of Prison Abuse
Crucial Conversations: Burial Grounds
Convict Leasing, Forced Labor, Theft of Black Wealth: The Case of the Chattahoochee Brick Company
Sacred Site Ceremony - Chattahoochee Brick Company Consecration 4/3/2021
Museums
History of Angola — The Angola Museum at the Louisiana State Penitentiary
Questions for Research and Reflection:
- Do you agree that convict leasing is 'slavery by another name?' Why or why not?
- Do you think using prison labor to enrich for-profit employers should be allowed? State employers? Why or why not?
- How does convict leasing set the stage for post civil-rights era mass-incarceration programs? The "War of Drugs?"
- How does convict leasing compare to the modern-day criminal justice system in your area?
- How do sundown and vagrancy laws aid convict leasing schemes?
- In what ways are modern 'driving while Black' police stops similar to laws limiting Black travel from prior eras?
- Research whether there was convict leasing in place where your ancestors lived. What were conditions like?
- How does being arrested for vagrancy or sundown law or violation of other Jim Crow laws affect the ability to earn an income?
- Did any of your ancestors pass down stories from this era? What happened?
"It was never the case that a white asset-based middle class simply emerged. Rather, it was government policy, and to some extent literal government giveaways, that provided whites the finance, education, land and infrastructure to accumulate and pass down wealth."